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By Naeemah Abrahams, RN,
MPH, Ph.D.
Introduction
Research on violence against women in South Africa
has proliferated within the last five years and all
these studies highlight acts of violence as a human
rights violation; with the underlying factor the inequality
between men and women. The profound impact of the
violence on women's personal, sexual, social and reproductive
life reduces their autonomy and destroys their sense
of personal safety and their quality of life.
Violence Unchallenged
In South Africa, violence has become normative and
to a large extent accepted, rather than challenged
[1;2]. It is presented as one of the few ways, which
men have to assert their masculinity [3]. The causes
of violence in South Africa are multi-factorial; and
one of the important factors is the role of apartheid.
One of the consequences of decades of apartheid -
State-sponsored violence and reactive community insurrection
- is that for many people physical violence has become
a first line strategy for resolving conflict and gaining
ascendancy.
Coercive Practices
In qualitative studies violence and coercive practices
have been reported as dominating sexual relationships
[2]. Adolescent pregnant women reported that the conditions
and timing of sex were defined by their male partners
through the use of violence and through the circulation
of certain constructions of love, intercourse, and
entitlement to which the teenage girls were expected
to submit. The legitimacy of these coercive sexual
experiences was enforced by female peers who indicated
that silence and submission was the appropriate response.
Informants indicated that they did not terminate the
relationships for several reasons: as well as peer
pressure to have a male partner, teenagers said that
they perceived that their partners loved them because
they gave them gifts of clothing and money.
The young women reported that the forced intercourse
experienced with their partners could never be termed
rape because "it is with your boyfriend and there
is something between you" [2]. The taboo against discussion
of sex and sexual intimacy in daily discourse is very
strong and the language used to describe lovemaking
is also the language which must be used to describe
a violent sexual act.
Intimate Partner Violence
Two population prevalence studies in South Africa
have found that one in four women reported having
been abused by an intimate partner [4;5]. Higher rates
have been reported in sub-populations. A study among
working men in Cape Town found that 42% of them reported
the use of physical violence and nearly 16% reported
use of sexual violence against an intimate partner
with whom they had a relationship in the last 10 years
[6]. This 1 in 4 statistic places the level of intimate
partner violence in South Africa among the average
range and similar to the US. Statistics from other
countries range between 15 - 67%. However, the first
national femicide study that has just been completed
in South Africa found an intimate femicide rate 4
times higher than the US. In other words four women
are killed by an intimate partner everyday in South
Africa [7].
Underreporting
Huge differences have also been observed between the
number of sexual violence cases reported to the police
and the number reported in studies. A nine-fold difference
was reported between the cases reported to police
(240/100 000) and those reported in a representative
community-based study (2070/ 100 000 women per year
in the 17 to 48 year age group) [8]. In a study of
antenatal attendees in Soweto, 20% of the women reported
a lifetime prevalence of sexual violence by an intimate
partner while 9.7% reported this happening within
the past year.
Women experience violence at an early age and studies
among adolescents provide data on many different aspects
of sexual coercion. In a study of risk factors for
teenage pregnancy, a third (31.9%) of the pregnant
teenagers and nearly 18.1% of the non-pregnant teenagers
reported having experienced forced sex or rape as
their initial sexual experience [9]. The South African
Demographic Health Survey [4] found that the youngest
age group (15-19) years were twice as likely as the
oldest age group (45-49) to report sexual violence.
This is significant in that this is the same demographic
group at greatest risk for HIV infection.
In-School Violence
Studies among schools girls have also highlighted
how sexual violence at school hindered girls' access
to education; with girls dropping out of school due
to the violence. In a recent study, school girls observed
that male educators use various strategies and opportunities
to gain sexual access. Sexual bullying was also a
common occurrence at these schools where male peers
target the girls as an easy source of money and food.
Grabbing at girls, their breast, buttocks and genitals
ensured the release of these valuables [10].
Gang Rape
Another aspect of sexual violence in South Africa
is gang rape. A rape surveillance study in Johannesburg
reported that more than one third of the women reported
being raped by more than one perpetrator [11]. Gang
activity in South Africa includes 'jackrolling', which
is the forceful abduction and possible sexual abuse
of women. 'Stream-lining' is another form of gang
rape in South Africa, but where girls usually know
the perpetrators. A young man may arrange for a number
of his friends to have forced sex with his girlfriend,
usually when he intends to end the relationship or
when he wants to teach her a lesson, for example when
she has transgressed rules [2].
Progressive Laws
The Domestic Violence Act 116 implemented since
December 1999 and the new Bill on Sexual Offences
currently being drafted will ensure that South Africa
has one of the most progressive laws regarding violence
against women in the world. In addition South Africa
has a fairly extensive network of NGOs that address
the issue of domestic violence. There are also a number
of shelters for battered women - but these are mainly
found in the urban cities. While all these policy
and legal changes are important, they are however,
ineffective if the enabling environment at the community
level for the implementation of the changes is not
present.
Call to Action
South Africa is a country, which is hailed as
having prevented violence during the transition to
democracy. This does not appear to apply to the female
citizens who continue to die and suffer the consequences,
or live in fear of violence by intimate partners within
their homes. The extent of violence perpetrated against
women in South Africa provides compelling evidence
to propel all policy makers and citizens, however
sceptical or resistant, to act on this issue.
References
1. Simpson, G. Explaining sexual violence: Some
background factors in the current socio-political
context. Centre for the Study of Violence and
Reconciliation . 1-1-1991.
2. Wood, K., & Jewkes, R. (2001). "Dangerous'
love: reflections on violence in sexual relationships
of young people in Umtata." In R.Morrell (Ed.),
Changing men in South Africa. (pp. 317-336).
Pietermaritzburg: University of Natal Press.
3. Leclerc-Madlala, S. (1997). "Infect one, infect
all: psychological response and impact of the AIDS
epidemic on Zulu youth in South Africa."
Med Anthropol 17 362-380.
4. DOH. South Africa Demographic and Health Survey
1998. Full Report. 1-338. 2002. Pretoria.
5. Jewkes, R., Penn-Kekana, L., Levin, J., Ratsaka,
M., & Schrieber, M. (2000). "Prevalence of
Emotional, Physical and Sexual Abuse of Women in three
South African Provinces." S Afr Med J
91(5), 421-428.
6. Abrahams, N., Jewkes, R., Hoffman, M., & Laubsher,
R. (2004). "Sexual violence against intimate
partners in Cape Town: prevalence and risk factors
reported by men." Bull. World Health Organ
82(5), 330-337.
7. Mathews, S., Abrahams, N., Martin, L., Van der
Merwe, L., & Jewkes, R. (2004) "Every six hours
a woman is killed by her intimate partner": A national
study of female homicide in South Africa. 5. 2004.
Cape Town, Medical Research Council.
8. Jewkes, R., & Abrahams, N. (2002). "The
epidemiology of rape and sexual coercion in South
Africa: An overview." Soc Sci Med 55
1231-1244.
9. Wood, K., Maforah, F., & Jewkes, R. (1998).
"He forced me to love him": putting violence on adolescent
sexual health agendas." Soc.Sci.Med 47(2),
233-242.
10. Abrahams, N. (2003) School violence: Another burden
facing the girl child. The 2nd Gender-Based Violence
& Health Conference. 20. 5-9-2003. Gauteng.
11. Swart,L.E.A. (1999) "Evaluation of a rape
surveillance project and implications for prevention."
Monograph Series 1(2), 1-54. 1-1-1999.
*Naeemah Abrahams is the deputy director of the
Gender & Health Research group of the South African
Medical Research Council. She has a nursing background
and has a Ph.D. in public health.
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